Кардиоренальный синдром у больных с сердечной недостаточностью как этап кардиоренального континуума (часть 2): прогностическое значение, профилактика и лечение

Кардиоренальный синдром у больных с сердечной недостаточностью — закономерное звено в цепи кардиоренального континуума. С пациентами с кардиоренальным синдромом могут столкнуться врачи различных специальностей: терапевты, кардиологи, нефрологи, реаниматологи, анестезиологи, кардиохирурги и др. В первой части обзора были рассмотрены понятие, классификация, патогенез, критерии диагностики и эпидемиологические данные, касающиеся кардиоренального синдрома у больных с сердечной недостаточностью. Во второй части рассмотрены прогностическое значение, подходы к профилактике и лечению кардиоренального синдрома у больных с сердечной недостаточностью. Они включают в себя лечение сердечно-сосудистой патологии и сердечной недостаточности в соответствии с современными рекомендациями и предотвращение эпизодов острой и декомпенсации хронической сердечной недостаточности; диету; отказ от курения, алкоголя, нефротоксичных веществ; контроль массы тела, артериального давления, гликемии; применение ингибиторов анги-отензинпревращающего фермента, антагонистов рецепторов ангиотензина или ангиотензиновых рецепторов и неприлизина ингибиторов (АРНИ), статинов; снижение внутрибрюшного давления и другие. Необходима разработка и внедрение новых подходов к нефропротекции у больных с кардиоренальным синдромом, что возможно при совместной работе мультидисциплинарной команды.

1. Ponikowski P., Voors A., Рекомендации ESC по диагностике и лечению острой и хронической сердечной недостаточности 2016. Российский кардиологический журнал. 2017; 141(1): 7-81.

2. Джиоева О.Н., Орлов Д.О., Резник Е.В. и др. Современные принципы снижения периоперационных кардиальных осложнений при внесердечных хирургических вмешательствах. РМЖ. Кардиология. 2018; 6(I): 33-41.

3. Мареев В.Ю., Агеев Ф.Т., Арутюнов Г.П. Национальные Рекомендации ВНОК и ОССН по диагностике и лечению ХСН (второй пересмотр). Сердечная недостаточность. 2007; 39(1): 4-41.

4. Мареев В.Ю., Агеев Ф.Т., Арутюнов Г.П., Национальные рекомендации ОССН, РКО и РНМОТ по диагностике и лечению ХСН (четвертый пересмотр). Журнал Сердечная недостаточность. 2013; 14(7): 379-472.

5. Мареев В.Ю., Фомин И.В., Агеев Ф.Т. и др. Клинические рекомендации. Профилактика, диагностика и лечение хронической сердечной недостаточности (и острой декомпенсации). 2018; 124 с.

6. Мареев В.Ю., Фомин И.В., Агеев Ф.Т. и др. Клинические рекомендации. Хроническая сердечная недостаточность (ХСН). 2016; 92 с.

7. Медведева Е.А., Шиляева Н.В. и др. Кардиоренальный синдром при хронической сердечной недостаточности: патогенез, диагностика, прогноз и возможности терапии. Российский кардиологический журнал. 2017; 141(1): 136-141.

8. Моисеев В.С., Мухин Н.А., Смирнов А.В. Сердечно-сосудистый риск и хроническая болезнь почек: стратегии кардио-нефропро-текции. Российский кардиологический журнал, 2014; 112(8): 7-37.

9. Резник Е.В. Почки как орган-мишень при хронической сердечной недостаточности. Lamber. 2011; 188 с.

10. Резник Е.В. Особенности поражения органов-мишеней у больных с хронической сердечной недостаточностью. Диссертация на соискание ученой степени доктора медицинских наук. Москва. 2016; 500 с.

11. Резник Е.В., Гендлин Г.Е., Гущина В.М. и др. Хроническая болезнь почек у больных с хронической сердечной недостаточностью (Обзор литературы). Нефрология и диализ. 2010; 12(1): 13-24.

12. Резник Е.В., Гендлин Г.Е., Хрипун А.И. и др. Функциональное состояние почек, экскреция альбумина с мочой и почечная гемодинамика у больных с хронической сердечной недостаточностью. Нефрология и диализ. 2010; 12(4): 275-286.

13. Резник Е.В., Никитин И.Г АЛГОРИТМ ЛЕЧЕНИЯ БОЛЬНЫХ С ХРОНИЧЕСКОЙ СЕРДЕЧНОЙ НЕДОСТАТОЧНОСТЬЮ С НИЗКОЙ ФРАКЦИЕЙ ВЫБРОСА ЛЕВОГО ЖЕЛУДОЧКА. Архивъ внутренней медицины. 2018; 8(2): 85-99. DOI: 10.20514/2226-6704-2018-8-2-85-99.

14. Резник Е.В., Никитин И.Г. Минеральные и костные нарушения у больных с хронической сердечной недостаточностью. Кардиология. 2018; 58(S2): 34-54.

15. Смирнов А.В., Шилов Е.М., Бобкова И.Н. НАЦИОНАЛЬНЫЕ РЕКОМЕНДАЦИИ ХРОНИЧЕСКАЯ БОЛЕЗНЬ ПОЧЕК: ОСНОВНЫЕ ПОЛОЖЕНИЯ, ОПРЕДЕЛЕНИЕ, ДИАГНОСТИКА, СКРИНИНИГ, ПОДХОДЫ К ПРОФИЛАКТИКЕ И ЛЕЧЕНИЮ. Нефрология. 2012; 16(1): 89-115.

16. Смирнов А.В., Шилов Е.М., Добронравов В.А. Национальные рекомендации. Хроническая болезнь почек: основные принципы скрининга, диагностики, профилактики и подходы к лечению. Левша: Санкт-Петербург. 2012; 51 с.

17. Шилов Е.М., Кутырина И.М., Новикова М.С. Терапевтические стратегии лечения кардиоренального синдрома. Лечащий врач. 2012; 1: 8-13.

18. Effect of enalapril on survival in patients with reduced left ventricular ejection fractions and congestive heart failure. The SOLVD Investigators. N Engl J Med. 1991; 325 (5): 293-302.

19. Effect of enalapril on mortality and the development of heart failure in asymptomatic patients with reduced left ventricular ejection fractions. The SOLVD Investigattors. N Engl J Med. 1992; 327 (10): 685-91.

20. K/DOQI clinical practice guidelines for chronic kidney disease: evaluation, classification, and stratification. Am J Kidney Dis. 2002; 39 (2 Suppl 1): S1-266.

21. Abraham W.T., Aranda J.M., Boehmer J.P, et al. Rationale and design of the treatment of hyponatremia based on lixivaptan in NYHA class III/IV cardiac patient evaluation (THE BALANCE) study. Clin Transl Sci. 2010; 3 (5): 249-53.

22. Akhter M.W., Aronson D., Bitar F. et al. Effect of elevated admission serum creatinine and its worsening on outcome in hospitalized patients with decompensated heart failure. Am J Cardiol. 2004; 94 (7): 957-60.

23. Al-Khadra A.S., Salem D.N., Rand W.M. et al. Antiplatelet agents and survival: a cohort analysis from the Studies of Left Ventricular Dysfunction (SOLVD) trial. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1998; 31 (2): 419-25.

24. Anker S.D., Comin Colet J., Filippatos G. et al. Ferric carboxymaltose in patients with heart failure and iron deficiency. N Engl J Med. 2009; 361 (25): 2436-48.

25. Bagshaw S.M., Cruz D.N., Epidemiology of cardiorenal syndromes. Contrib Nephrol. 2010; 165: 68-82.

26. Bakris G.L., Townsend R.R., Liu M. et al. Impact of renal denervation on 24-hour ambulatory blood pressure: results from SYMPLICITY HTN-3. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2014; 64 (11): 1071-8.

27. Besarab A., Goodkin D.A., Nissenson A.R. The normal hematocrit study-follow-up. N Engl J Med. 2008; 358 (4): 433-4.

28. Boerrigter G., Costello-Boerrigter L.C., Abraham WT. et al. Cardiac resynchronization therapy improves renal function in human heart failure with reduced glomerular filtration rate. J Card Fail. 2008; 14 (7): 539-46.

29. Burger D., Xenocostas A., Feng Q.P. Molecular basis of cardioprotec-tion by erythropoietin. Curr Mol Pharmacol. 2009; 2 (1): 56-69.

30. Butler J., Chirovsky D., Phatak H. et al. Renal function, health outcomes, and resource utilization in acute heart failure: a systematic review. Circ Heart Fail. 2010; 3 (6): 726-45.

31. Butler J., Geisberg C., Howser R. et al. Relationship between renal function and left ventricular assist device use. Ann Thorac Surg. 2006; 81 (5): 1745-51.

32. Chatterjee P.K. Pleiotropic renal actions of erythropoietin. Lancet. 2005; 365 (9474): 1890-2.

33. Chen H.H., Anstrom K.J., Givertz M.M. et al. Low-dose dopamine or low-dose nesiritide in acute heart failure with renal dysfunction: the ROSE acute heart failure randomized trial. Jama. 2013; 310 (23): 2533-43.

34. Chung E.S., Packer M., Lo K.H. et al. Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, pilot trial of infliximab, a chimeric monoclonal antibody to tumor necrosis factor-alpha, in patients with moderate-to-severe heart failure: results of the anti-TNF Therapy Against Congestive Heart Failure (ATTACH) trial. Circulation. 2003; 107 (25): 3133-40.

35. Conrad K.P, Maternal vasodilation in pregnancy: the emerging role of relaxin. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2011; 301 (2): R267-75.

36. Costello-Boerrigter L.C., Smith W.B., Boerrigter G. et al. Vasopressin-2-receptor antagonism augments water excretion without changes in renal hemodynamics or sodium and potassium excretion in human heart failure. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol. 2006; 290 (2): F273-8.

37. Cowie M.R., Komajda M., Murray-Thomas T. et al. Prevalence and impact of worsening renal function in patients hospitalized with decompensated heart failure: results of the prospective outcomes study in heart failure (POSH). Eur Heart J. 2006; 27 (10): 1216-22.

38. Cruz D.N. Cardiorenal syndrome in critical care: the acute cardiorenal and renocardiac syndromes. Adv Chronic Kidney Dis. 2013; 20 (1): 56-66.

39. Cruz D.N., Schmidt-Ott K.M., Vescovo G. et al. Pathophysiology of cardiorenal syndrome type 2 in stable chronic heart failure: workgroup statements from the eleventh consensus conference of the Acute Dialysis Quality Initiative (ADQI). Contrib Nephrol. 2013; 182: 117-36.

40. Damman K., Gori M., Claggett B. et al. Renal Effects and Associated Outcomes During Angiotensin-Neprilysin Inhibition in Heart Failure. JACC Heart Fail. 2018.

41. Damman K., Navis G., Voors A.A. et al. Worsening renal function and prognosis in heart failure: systematic review and meta-analysis. J Card Fail. 2007; 13 (8): 599-608.

42. de Silva R., Nikitin N.P., Witte K.K. et al. Incidence of renal dysfunction over 6 months in patients with chronic heart failure due to left ventricular systolic dysfunction: contributing factors and relationship to prognosis. Eur Heart J. 2006; 27 (5): 569-81.

43. de Silva R., Rigby A.S., Witte K.K. et al. Anemia, renal dysfunction, and their interaction in patients with chronic heart failure. Am J Cardiol. 2006; 98 (3): 391-8.

44. Delles C., Schmieder R.E. The kidney in congestive heart failure: renal adverse event rate of treatment. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol. 2001; 38 (1): 99-107.

45. Demirozu Z.T., Etheridge W.B., Radovancevic R. et al. Results of Heart-Mate II left ventricular assist device implantation on renal function in patients requiring post-implant renal replacement therapy. J Heart Lung Transplant. 2011; 30 (2): 182-7.

46. Desai A.S., Vardeny O., Claggett B. et al. Reduced Risk of Hyperkalemia During Treatment of Heart Failure With Mineralocorticoid Receptor Antagonists by Use of Sacubitril/Valsartan Compared With Enalapril: A Secondary Analysis of the PARADIGM-HF Trial. JAMA Cardiol, 2017; 2 (1): 79-85.

47. Dittrich H.C., Gupta D.K., Hack T.C. et al. The effect of KW-3902, an adenosine A1 receptor antagonist, on renal function and renal plasma flow in ambulatory patients with heart failure and renal impairment. J Card Fail. 2007; 13 (8): 609-17.

48. Dobre D., Rossignol P,, Metra M. et al. Can we prevent or treat renal dysfunction in chronic heart failure? Heart Fail Rev. 2012; 17 (2): 283-90.

49. Dries D.L., Exner D.V., Domanski M.J. et al. The prognostic implications of renal insufficiency in asymptomatic and symptomatic patients with left ventricular systolic dysfunction. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2000; 35 (3): 681-9.

50. Feenstra J. in't Veld B.A., van der Linden P.D. et al. Risk factors for mortality in users of ibopamine. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 1998; 46 (1): 71-7,

51. Filippatos G., Parissis J.T. Vasopressin antagonists for the treatment of acute decompensated heart failure: when, for whom, for how long, and on what standard therapy? J Card Fail. 2008; 14 (8): 648-50.

52. Filippatos G., Rossi J., Lloyd-Jones D.M. et al. Prognostic value of blood urea nitrogen in patients hospitalized with worsening heart failure: insights from the Acute and Chronic Therapeutic Impact of a Vasopressin Antagonist in Chronic Heart Failure (ACTIV in CHF) study. J Card Fail. 2007; 13 (5): 360-4.

53. Fonarow G.C., Adams K.F., Jr., Abraham W.T. et al. Risk stratification for in-hospital mortality in acutely decompensated heart failure: classification and regression tree analysis. Jama. 2005; 293 (5): 572-80.

54. Forman D.E., Butler J., Wang Y. et al. Incidence, predictors at admission, and impact of worsening renal function among patients hospitalized with heart failure. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2004; 43 (1): 61-7.

55. Frances C.D., Noguchi H., Massie B.M. et al., Are we inhibited? Renal insufficiency should not preclude the use of ACE inhibitors for patients with myocardial infarction and depressed left ventricular function. Arch Intern Med. 2000; 160 (17): 2645-50.

56. Gheorghiade M., Gattis W.A., O'Connor C.M. et al. Effects of tolvap-tan, a vasopressin antagonist, in patients hospitalized with worsening heart failure: a randomized controlled trial. Jama. 2004; 291 (16): 1963-71.

57. Gheorghiade M., Konstam M.A., Burnett J.C., Jr. et al. Short-term clinical effects of tolvaptan, an oral vasopressin antagonist, in patients hospitalized for heart failure: the EVEREST Clinical Status Trials. Jama. 2007; 297 (12): 1332-43.

58. Givertz M.M., Massie B.M., Fields T.K. et al. The effects of KW-3902, an adenosine A1-receptor antagonist,on diuresis and renal function in patients with acute decompensated heart failure and renal impairment or diuretic resistance. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2007; 50 (16): 1551-60.

59. Goldsmith S.R., Brandimarte F., Gheorghiade M. Congestion as a therapeutic target in acute heart failure syndromes. Prog Cardiovasc Dis. 2010; 52 (5): 383-92.

60. Gottlieb S.S. Renal effects of adenosine A1-receptor antagonists in congestive heart failure. Drugs. 2001; 61 (10): 1387-93.

61. Gottlieb S.S. Adenosine A1 antagonists and the cardiorenal syndrome. Curr Heart Fail Rep. 2008; 5 (2): 105-9.

62. Gottlieb S.S., Abraham W., Butler J. et al. The prognostic importance of different definitions of worsening renal function in congestive heart failure. J Card Fail. 2002; 8 (3): 136-41.

63. Gottlieb S.S., Givertz M.M., Metra M. et al. The effects of adenosine A(1) receptor antagonism in patients with acute decompensated heart failure and worsening renal function: the REACH UP study. J Card Fail. 2010; 16 (9): 714-9.

64. Gu J., Noe A., Chandra P, et al. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of LCZ696, a novel dual-acting angiotensin receptor-neprilysin inhibitor (ARNi). Clin Pharmacol,. 2010; 50 (4): 401-14.

65. Halbesma N., Jansen D.F., Heymans M.W. et al. Development and validation of a general population renal risk score. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2011; 6 (7): 1731-8.

66. Hampton J.R. PRIME II (Second Prospective Randomized Study of Ibu-pamine on Mortality and Efficacy): another disappointment in heart failure therapy. Eur Heart J. 1997; 18 (10): 1519-20.

67. Hasin T., Topilsky Y., Schirger J.A. et al. Changes in renal function after implantation of continuous-flow left ventricular assist devices. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2012; 59 (1): 26-36.

68. Hatamizadeh P., Fonarow G.C., Budoff M.J. et al. Cardiorenal syndrome: pathophysiology and potential targets for clinical management. Nat Rev Nephrol. 2013; 9 (2): 99-111.

69. Heywood J.T. The cardiorenal syndrome: lessons from the ADHERE database and treatment options. Heart Fail Rev. 2004; 9 (3): 195-201.

70. Heywood J.T., Fonarow G.C., Costanzo M.R. et al. High prevalence of renal dysfunction and its impact on outcome in 118,465 patients hospitalized with acute decompensated heart failure: a report from the ADHERE database. J Card Fail. 2007; 13 (6): 422-30.

71. Hillege H., Van Gilst W., de Zeeuw D. et al. Renal function as a predictor of prognosis in chronic heart failure. Heart Fail Monit. 2002; 2 (3): 78-84.

72. Hillege H.L., Girbes A.R., de Kam P.J. et al. Renal function, neurohormonal activation, and survival in patients with chronic heart failure. Circulation. 2000; 102 (2): 203-10.

73. House A.A., Anand I., Bellomo R. et al. Definition and classification of Cardio-Renal Syndromes: workgroup statements from the 7th ADQI Consensus Conference. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2010; 25 (5): 1416-20.

74. Hsu C.Y., McCulloch C.E., Iribarren C. et al. Body mass index and risk for end-stage renal disease. Ann Intern Med. 2006; 144 (1): 21-8.

75. Hunt S.A. ACC/AHA 2005 guideline update for the diagnosis and management of chronic heart failure in the adult: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines (Writing Committee to Update the 2001 Guidelines for the Evaluation and Management of Heart Failure). J Am Coll Cardiol. 2005; 46 (6): e1-82.

76. Hunt S.A., Abraham W.T., Chin M.H. et al. 2009 Focused update incorporated into the ACC/AHA 2005 Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Management of Heart Failure in Adults A Report of the American College of Cardiology Foundation/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines Developed in Collaboration With the International Society for Heart and Lung Transplantation. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2009; 53 (15): e1-e90.

77. Hunt S.A., Abraham W.T., Chin M.H. et al. 2009 focused update incorporated into the ACC/AHA 2005 Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Management of Heart Failure in Adults: a report of the American College of Cardiology Foundation/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines: developed in collaboration with the International Society for Heart and Lung Transplantation. Circulation. 2009; 119 (14): e391-479.

78. Ismail Y., Kasmikha Z., Green H.L. et al. Cardio-renal syndrome type 1: epidemiology, pathophysiology, and treatment. emin Nephrol. 2012; 32 (1): 18-25.

79. Jafar T.H., Stark P.C., Schmid C.H. et al. Progression of chronic kidney disease: the role of blood pressure control, proteinuria, and angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibition: a patient-level meta-analysis. Ann Intern Med. 2003; 139 (4): 244-52.

80. Jessup M., Abraham W.T., Casey D.E. et al. 2009 focused update: ACCF/AHA Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Management of Heart Failure in Adults: a report of the American College of Cardiology Foundation/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines: developed in collaboration with the International Society for Heart and Lung Transplantation. Circulation. 2009; 119 (14): 1977-2016.

81. Jois P., Mebazaa A. Cardio-renal syndrome type 2: epidemiology, pathophysiology, and treatment. Semin Nephrol. 2012; 32 (1): 26-30.

82. Kazory A., Ross E.A. Anemia: the point of convergence or divergence for kidney disease and heart failure? J Am Coll Cardiol. 2009; 53 (8): 639-47,

83. Klein L., Massie B.M., Leimberger J.D. et al. Admission or changes in renal function during hospitalization for worsening heart failure predict postdischarge survival: results from the Outcomes of a Prospective Trial of Intravenous Milrinone for Exacerbations of Chronic Heart Failure (OPTIME-CHF). Circ Heart Fail. 2008; 1 (1): 25-33.

84. Komukai K., Ogawa T., Yagi H. et al. Decreased renal function as an independent predictor of re-hospitalization for congestive heart failure. Circ J. 2008; 72 (7): 1152-7.

85. Konstam M.A., Gheorghiade M., Burnett J.C., et al. Effects of oral tolvaptan in patients hospitalized for worsening heart failure: the EVEREST Outcome Trial. Jama. 2007; 297 (12): 1319-31.

86. Kraehling J.R., Sessa W.C. Contemporary Approaches to Modulating the Nitric Oxide-cGMP Pathway in Cardiovascular Disease. Circ Res. 2017; 120 (7): 1174-1182.

87. Krum H., Iyngkaran P., Lekawanvijit S. Pharmacologic management of the cardiorenal syndrome in heart failure. Curr Heart Fail Rep. 2009; 6 (2): 105-11.

88. Krum H., Teerlink J.R. Medical therapy for chronic heart failure. Lancet. 2011; 378 (9792): 713-21.

89. Krumholz H.M., Chen Y.T., Vaccarino V. et al. Correlates and impact on outcomes of worsening renal function in patients > or =65 years of age with heart failure. Am J Cardiol. 2000; 85 (9): 1110-3.

90. Levey A.S., de Jong P.E., Coresh J. et al. The definition, classification, and prognosis of chronic kidney disease: a KDIGO Controversies Conference report. Kidney Int. 2011; 80 (1): 17-28.

91. Logeart D., Tabet J.Y., Hittinger L. et al. Transient worsening of renal function during hospitalization for acute heart failure alters outcome. Int J Cardiol. 2008; 127 (2): 228-32.

92. Madsen B.K., Keller N., Christiansen E. et al. Prognostic value of plasma catecholamines, plasma renin activity, and plasma atrial natriuretic peptide at rest and during exercise in congestive heart failure: comparison with clinical evaluation, ejection fraction, and exercise capacity. J Card Fail. 1995; 1 (3): 207-16.

93. Maggioni A.P., Dahlstrom U., Filippatos G. et al. EURObservational Research Programme: regional differences and 1-year follow-up results of the Heart Failure Pilot Survey (ESC-HF Pilot). Eur J Heart Fail. 2013; 15 (7): 808-17.

94. Mahapatra, H.S., Lalmalsawma, R., Singh, N.P. et al., Cardiorenal syndrome. Iran J Kidney Dis, 2009. Vol. 3 (2): P. 61-70.

95. Mancia G., Fagard R., Narkiewicz K. et al. 2013 ESH/ESC Guidelines for the management of arterial hypertension. Blood Press. 2013.

96. Mann D.L., McMurray J.J., Packer M. et al. Targeted anticytokine therapy in patients with chronic heart failure: results of the Randomized Etanercept Worldwide Evaluation (RENEWAL). Circulation. 2004; 109 (13): 1594-602.

97. Marcus L.S., Hart D., Packer M. et al. Hemodynamic and renal excretory effects of human brain natriuretic peptide infusion in patients with congestive heart failure. A double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized crossover trial. Circulation. 1996; 94 (12): 3184-9.

98. Massie B.M., Collins J.F., Ammon S.E. et al. Randomized trial of warfarin, aspirin, and clopidogrel in patients with chronic heart failure: the Warfarin and Antiplatelet Therapy in Chronic Heart Failure (WATCH) trial. Circulation. 2009; 119 (12): 1616-24.

99. Massie B.M., O'Connor C.M., Metra M. et al. Rolofylline, an adenosine A1-receptor antagonist, in acute heart failure. N Engl J Med. 2010; 363 (15): 1419-28.

100. Maxwell A.P., Ong H.Y., Nicholls D.P. Influence of progressive renal dysfunction in chronic heart failure. Eur J Heart Fail. 2002; 4 (2): 125-30.

101. McMurray J.J., Anand I.S., Diaz R. et al. Design of the Reduction of Events with Darbepoetin alfa in Heart Failure (RED-HF): a Phase III, anaemia correction, morbidity-mortality trial. Eur J Heart Fail. 2009; 11 (8): 795-801.

102. McMurray J.J., Teerlink J.R., Cotter G. et al. Effects of tezosentan on symptoms and clinical outcomes in patients with acute heart failure: the VERITAS randomized controlled trials. JAMA. 2007; 298 (17): 2009-19.

103. Metra M., Nodari S., Parrinello G. et al. Worsening renal function in patients hospitalised for acute heart failure: clinical implications and prognostic significance. Eur J Heart Fail. 2008; 10 (2): 188-95.

104. Morrissey R.P., Czer L., Shah P.K. Chronic heart failure: current evidence, challenges to therapy, and future directions. Am J Cardiovasc Drugs, 2011; 11 (3): 153-71.

105. Mullens W., Abrahams Z., Skouri H.N. et al. Elevated intra-abdominal pressure in acute decompensated heart failure: a potential contributor to worsening renal function? J Am Coll Cardiol. 2008; 51 (3): 300-6.

106. Nohria A., Hasselblad V., Stebbins A. et al. Cardiorenal interactions: insights from the ESCAPE trial. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2008; 51 (13): 1268-74.

107. O'Connor C.M., Abraham W.T., Albert N.M. et al. Predictors of mortality after discharge in patients hospitalized with heart failure: an analysis from the Organized Program to Initiate Lifesaving Treatment in Hospitalized Patients with Heart Failure (OPTIMIZE-HF). Am Heart J. 2008; 156 (4): 662-73.

108. Owan T.E., Hodge D.O., Herges R.M. et al. Secular trends in renal dysfunction and outcomes in hospitalized heart failure patients. J Card Fail. 2006; 12 (4): 257-62.

109. Packer M., Califf R.M., Konstam M.A. et al. Comparison of omapatrilat and enalapril in patients with chronic heart failure: the Omapatrilat Versus Enalapril Randomized Trial of Utility in Reducing Events (OVERTURE). Circulation. 2002; 106 (8): 920-6.

110. Pinto-Sietsma S.J., Mulder J., Janssen W.M. et al. Smoking is related to albuminuria and abnormal renal function in nondiabetic persons. Ann Intern Med. 2000; 133 (8): 585-91.

111. Pitt B., Segal R., Martinez F.A. et al. Randomised trial of losartan versus captopril in patients over 65 with heart failure (Evaluation of Losartan in the Elderly Study, ELITE). Lancet. 1997; 349 (9054): 747-52.

112. Pokhrel N., Maharjan N., Dhakal B. et al. Cardiorenal syndrome: A literature review. Exp Clin Cardiol. 2008; 13 (4): 165-70.

113. Ponikowski P., Mitrovic V., O'Connor C.M. et al. Haemodynamic effects of rolofylline in the treatment of patients with heart failure and impaired renal function. Eur J Heart Fail. 2010; 12 (11): 1238-46.

114. Ponikowski P., Voors A.A., Anker S.D. et al. 2016 ESC Guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of acute and chronic heart failure: The Task Force for the diagnosis and treatment of acute and chronic heart failure of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC)Developed with the special contribution of the Heart Failure Association (HFA) of the ESC. Eur Heart J. 2016; 37 (27): 2129-2200.

115. Preeti J., Alexandre M., Pupalan I. et al. Chronic Heart Failure and Comorbid Renal Dysfunction — A Focus on Type 2 Cardiorenal Syndrome. Curr Cardiol Rev. 2016; 12 (3): 186-94.

116. Ronco C., Maisel A. Volume overload and cardiorenal syndromes. Congest Heart Fail. 2010; 16 Suppl 1: P. Si-iv; quiz Svi.

117. Ruilope L.M., Dukat A., Bohm M. et al. Blood-pressure reduction with LCZ696, a novel dual-acting inhibitor of the angiotensin II receptor and neprilysin: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, active comparator study. Lancet. 2010; 375 (9722): 1255-66.

118. Ruilope L.M., van Veldhuisen D.J., Ritz E. et al. Renal function: the Cinderella of cardiovascular risk profile. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2001; 38 (7): 1782-7.

119. Sandner S.E., Zimpfer D., Zrunek P. et al. Renal function and outcome after continuous flow left ventricular assist device implantation. Ann Thorac Surg. 2009; 87 (4): 1072-8.

120. Schmidt H.H., Schmidt P.M., Stasch J.P., NO- and haem-independent soluble guanylate cyclase activators. Handb Exp Pharmacol. 2009; (191): 309-39.

121. Schrier R.W., Masoumi A., Elhassan E. Role of vasopressin and vasopressin receptor antagonists in type I cardiorenal syndrome. Blood Purif. 2009; 27 (1): 28-32.

122. Sen J., Chung E., McGill D. Tolvaptan for Heart Failure in Chronic Kidney Disease Patients: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Heart Lung Circ. 2018; 27 (8): 928-939.

123. Shlipak M.G. Pharmacotherapy for heart failure in patients with renal insufficiency. Ann Intern Med. 2003; 138 (11): 917-24.

124. Shlipak M.G., Massie B.M. The clinical challenge of cardiorenal syndrome. Circulation. 2004; 110 (12): 1514-7.

125. Singh M., Shullo M., Kormos R.L. et al. Impact of renal function before mechanical circulatory support on posttransplant renal outcomes. Ann Thorac Surg. 2011; 91 (5): 1348-54.

126. Smith G.L., Lichtman J.H., Bracken M.B. et al. Renal impairment and outcomes in heart failure: systematic review and meta-analysis. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2006; 47 (10): 1987-96.

127. Smith G.L., Vaccarino V., Kosiborod M. et al. Worsening renal function: what is a clinically meaningful change in creatinine during hospitalization with heart failure? J Card Fail. 2003; 9 (1): 13-25.

128. Strippoli G.F., Navaneethan S.D., Johnson D.W, et al. Effects of statins in patients with chronic kidney disease: meta-analysis and meta-regression of randomised controlled trials. BMJ. 2008; 336 (7645): 645-51.

129. Tangri N., Stevens L.A., Griffith J. et al. A predictive model for progression of chronic kidney disease to kidney failure. Jama. 2011; 305 (15): 1553-9.

130. Teerlink J.R., Cotter G., Davison B.A. et al. Serelaxin, recombinant human relaxin-2, for treatment of acute heart failure (RELAX-AHF): a randomised, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet. 2013; 381 (9860): 29-39.

131. Torre-Amione G., Young J.B., Colucci W.S. et al. Hemodynamic and clinical effects of tezosentan, an intravenous dual endothelin receptor antagonist, in patients hospitalized for acute decompensated heart failure. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2003; 42 (1): 140-7.

132. Verbrugge F.H., Dupont M., Steels P. et al. Abdominal contributions to cardiorenal dysfunction in congestive heart failure. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2013; 62 (6): 485-95.

133. Verbrugge F.H., Grieten L., Mullens W., Management of the cardiorenal syndrome in decompensated heart failure. Cardiorenal Med. 2014; 4 (3-4): 176-88.

134. Voors A.A., Gori M., Liu L.C. et al. Renal effects of the angiotensin receptor neprilysin inhibitor LCZ696 in patients with heart failure and preserved ejection fraction. Eur J Heart Fail. 2015; 17 (5): 510-7.

135. Wang D.J., Dowling T.C., Meadows D. et al. Nesiritide does not improve renal function in patients with chronic heart failure and worsening serum creatinine. Circulation. 2004; 110 (12): 1620-5.

136. Warmoth L., Regalado M.M., Simoni J. et al. Cigarette smoking enhances increased urine albumin excretion as a risk factor for glomerular filtration rate decline in primary hypertension. Am J Med Sci. 2005; 330 (3): 111-9.

137. Weatherley B.D., Cotter G., Dittrich H.C. et al. Design and rationale of the PROTECT study: a placebo-controlled randomized study of the selective A1 adenosine receptor antagonist rolofylline for patients hospitalized with acute decompensated heart failure and volume overload to assess treatment effect on congestion and renal function. J Card Fail. 2010; 16 (1): 25-35.

138. Whelton P.K., Carey R.M., Aronow, W.S. et al. 2017 ACC/AHA/AAPA/ ABC/ACPM/AGS/APhA/ASH/ASPC/NMA/PCNA Guideline for the Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Management of High Blood Pressure in Adults: A Report of the American College of Cardiology/ American Heart Association Task Force on Clinical Practice Guidelines. Hypertension. 2018; 71 (6): e13-e115.

139. Williams B., Mancia G., Spiering W. et al. 2018 ESC/ESH Guidelines for the management of arterial hypertension. Eur Heart J. 2018; 39 (33): 3021-3104.

140. Wright S.P., Verouhis D., Gamble, G. et al., Factors influencing the length of hospital stay of patients with heart failure. Eur J Heart Fail. 2003; 5 (2): 201-9.

141. Yancy C.W., Krum H., Massie B.M. et al. Safety and efficacy of outpatient nesiritide in patients with advanced heart failure: results of the Second Follow-Up Serial Infusions of Nesiritide (FUSION II) trial. Circ Heart Fail. 2008; 1 (1): 9-16.